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The term Shi'a
is Arabic for 'group' or 'faction'.
It is applied to those who believe
that, after the death of the Prophet,
the Imamate (the political and religious
leadership of the Muslim community)
should have gone to 'Ali - the cousin
and son-in-law of the prophet - and
his descendants as a divine right.
The three caliphs who preceded 'Ali
- Abu Bakr, 'Umar, and 'Uthman - were
not intended by Muhammad to be his
immediate successors.
The Imam is regarded by Shi'ites not
merely as a political leader but as
a metaphysical being, one who is without
sin, whose doctrinal pronouncements
are infallible and who bestows true
knowledge on humanity. The Imams are
referred to within the Shi'ite tradition
as masum - free from error or sin
- and are regarded by the majority
of Shi'as as twelve in number. The
last Imam, the Mahdi, is believed
not to have died but to be in hiding
and will appear at the end of time
in order to bring about the victory
of the Shi'a faith.
Unlike the Sunnis,
who perform prayers five times a day,
the Shi'ites pray three times a day:
in the morning, in the afternoon,
and at night. Like other Muslims,
they perform ritual ablutions before
prayer. However, they customarily
place a tiny tablet of clay brought
from a holy place on the spot where
their forehead will touch the ground.
They also build very sumptuous monuments
to their saints, organize pilgrimages
to the tombs of the Imams and their
descendants, and turn death and martyrdom
into the focal point of their devotion.
In the sphere of law the principal
difference between Shi'a and Sunni
is that Shi'a allows for temporary
marriage, called mu'tah, which can
legally be contracted for a fixed
period of time on the provision of
a fixed dower. With regard to theology,
the Shi'a, particularly the Zaydis
and Imamis, differ from the Sunnis
in adopting the principles of the
Mu'tazilite school of theology. A
controversial aspect of Shi'a theology
is called taqiya, which means dissimulation
of one's real beliefs. This doctrine
allows believers to hide their true
beliefs for the sake of their own
self-protection in the face of persecution.
The movement that came to be known as
Shi'a first appeared as a political
tendency resulting from the conflict
between the supporters of the Prophet's
son in law, 'Ali, and the Umayyad
dynasty over who should have authority
over the Muslim community. Following
the assassination of 'Ali, his supporters
claimed that leadership should go
to 'Ali's descendants. The conflict
was exacerbated by the assassination
in 671 of Ali's son, Husain, at the
hands of government troops, an event
which gave the movement a distinctively
religious, as well as political, impulse.
According to mainstream Shi'a (The Twelver
Shi'is) there have been twelve Imams
who have succeeded the Prophet Muhammad.
These are: 1) Ali, the cousin and
son-in-law of Muhammad (d.661); 2)
al-Hasan (d.670); 3) al-Husayn (d.680);
4) Ali Zayn al-'Abidin (d.713); 5)
Muhammad al-Baqir (d.733); 6) Ja'far
al-Sadiq (d.765); 7) Musa al-Kazim
(d.799); 8) 'Ali al-Rida (d.818);
9) Muhammad al-Jawad (d.835); 10)
'ali al-Hadi (d.868); 11) al-Hasan
al-'Askari (d.874); 12) Muhammad al-Mahdi.
The early history of the Shi'ite branch
of Islam is characterised by a series
of unsuccessful insurrections against
the dominant Sunnis and the subsequent
persecution of the Shi'is by the Sunnis.
However, in the 10th century the Shi'is
acquired a substantial measure of
self-determination as a result of
the establishment of various independent
Shi'i dynasties which came to control
much of the Muslim world. In Iraq
and Iran a dynasty called the Buyids
held sway. Syria was controlled by
the Shi'i Hamdanid dynasty. Egypt
and much of North Africa was under
the control or influence of the Isma'ili
Fatimid dynasty.
In the 11th century, however, these
dynasties were swept away by Turkish
tribes who were invading the region
from Central Asia and who came to
adopt Sunni, rather than, Shi'i Islam.
These were followed by invasions by
the Mongols in the 13th and 14th centuries,
the first of which was particularly
devastating for both Sunni and Shi'i
Muslims.
Shi'i independence was once again reestablished
with the emergence of the Safavid
dynasty in Iran at the beginning of
the 16th century. The establishment
of the Safavids exacerbated tensions
between the Sunni and Shi'i areas
of the Islamic world. The rise of
the Ottoman empire to the west led
to a long series of struggles between
the two empires for control of Iraq.
It was, however, internal weaknesses
followed by the invasion of Iran by
the Safavids' Afghani subjects that
led to the fall of the Safavid dynasty
in 1722.
After a brief attempt to reimpose Sunni
Islam on Iran by its new Shah, Nadir
Khan (r.1736-47), and a period of
anarchy and factional fighting following
Nadir Khan's assassination in 1747,
the country came under the authority
of Karim Khan (r.1750-79) whose wise
rule brought temporary stability and
prosperity to the region. Following
the death of Karim Khan in 1779 the
country was led by a series of weak
leaders until a new dynasty, the Qajars,
established themselves and ruled Iran
until 1909. The reign of the Qajars
coincided with the beginnings of the
attempt to modernise Iran in the context
of the growing impact of the European
presence in Iran.
The attempt to modernise and westernise
Iran was taken further by the final
ruling dynasty the Pahlavis (1925-1979).
Following the ascendancy of the Pahlavis
a series of laws were passed which
were designed to erode the power of
Islamic law in favour of a form of
secularised civil law. In 1928 a law
was passed making it illegal to wear
traditional dress. In the 1931 the
power of the religious courts was
reduced. In 1936 the use of the veil
was forbidden. Between 1941 and 1953
the Shah was forced to abdicate because
of his support for the National Socialists
during the second world war. On his
return he continued the process of
secularisation and westernisation.
Growing opposition to the Shah's westernising
policies on the part of the clergy
and their supporters, accompanied
by increased political corruption
and oppression within Iran, led to
the downfall of the Shah in 1979 and
its replacement with an Islamic republic
under the rule of Ayatullah Khomeini.
The regime immediately introduced
the Shi'i version of the shari'ah,
thereby undoing the modernising reforms
that had been introduced by the Pahlavis
and their predecessors. Although Ayatullah
Khomeini died in 1989, the Islamic
revolution which he founded continues
to dominate the political and religious
life of Iran.
Shi'a Islam (also called Shiite, or Shi'i)
is the second largest division of
Islam, constituting about 10-15% of
all Muslims. The Sunni Muslims recognise
the Four Caliphs as ‘rightly guided’,
while Shi’a Muslims recognise Ali
as the First Caliph and his descendants.
Shi’as differ on how many Imams there
have been. Some talk of Twelve and
others of Fourteen. They also differ
on who is the last Imam (Mahdi). Imamites
say it was the Twelfth Imam, Muhammad
al’Mahdi, the Zaydites say the Fifth,
Zayd, and, the Isma’ilites say the
Seventh Imam, Ismail. However, Shi’as
agree that the Last Imam went into
hiding and will return to bring in
the end of the world.
The five Shia principles of religion
(Usul ad Din) are: belief in divide
unity (Tawhid); prophecy (Nubuwwah);
resurrection (Maad); divine justice
(Mdl); and the belief in the Imams
as successors of the Prophet (Imamah).
The latter principle is not accepted
by Sunnis.
Most Sunnis believe the Sharia (religious
law of Islam) was codified and closed
by the 10th century. Shia followers
believe the Sharia is always open,
subject to fresh reformulations of
Sunna, hadith, (traditions of what
Muhammad and his companions said and
did) and Qur’an interpretations.
Like Sunni
Islam, Shia Islam has developed
several sects. Because of their belief
that the leader of the Muslim community
must be a blood relative of the prophet,
disputes arose when two sons of an
Imam (the title given to the Shia
leader) both claimed to be the rightful
successor. These disputes caused the
Shia sect to further divide into three
groups: Zaydis,
Ismai’ilis,
and Ithna
Asharis. The Twelver or Ithna-Ashari
sect is the most important of these,
as it predominates not only in Iraq
but in the Shia world generally. Broadly
speaking, the Twelvers are considered
political quietists as opposed to
the Zaydis who favor political activism,
and the Ismailis who are identified
with esoteric and gnostic religious
doctrines.
Canonical schools in Islam, are called
"Fiqh's"; the only Fiqh's
in Shia Islam, are Usuli, Akhbari,
and Shaykhi. These 3 all belong to
the Ithna-Ashari or mainstream Shia
Islam, which believes in the 12 Shia
Imams; hence the name which means
"Twelver's". The dominant
Shia legal school is sometimes termed
the Ja'fari Fiqh, after lmam Jaafar
Sadiq (a.s.), the Sixth Infallible
Imam of the world of Shiism. The term
"Jaafari" is something of
a pejorative term, just like "Wahhabiyyah"
is; and one that is not used by Shias
themselves. It is used by Sunnis,
to derided Shias, just as "Wahhabiyyah"
is used by Westerners and Shias, to
deride Sunnis, but neither term is
correct in and of itself.
A student assimilates from very early
the ijtihad methodology as he assumes
religious ranks: preacher, then mujtahid,
hujjat Al-Islam [Proof of Islam],
and then hujjat Al-Islam wa Al-Muslimeen
until he becomes a Source or ayatollah,
and thereafter the great ayatollah
or ayatollah al-`uzma.
The 1964 Afghan Constitution, which was
the basis of new 2003 constitution,
stated: "Islam is the sacred
religion of Afghanistan. Religious
rites performed by the state shall
be according to the provisions of
the Hanafi school of jurisprudence."
This stipulation left Afghan Shia
without proper representation. Thus
in March 2003, Ayatollah Mohammad
Asef Mohseni, leader of the predominantly
Shia Harakat-e Islami-yi Afghanistan,
proposed that, along with the Sunni
Hanafi school of jurisprudence, the
Shia Ja'fari school of jurisprudence
be included in the new constitution
as an official sect. Mohseni said
he proposed two additional formulas
if his proposal is not accepted: mentioning
"Islam and the Islamic sects,"
or just mentioning Islam without any
mention of sects to ensure that Afghan
Shia have their jurisprudence recognized
and are allowed to "perform their
religious duties according to it."
The Ja'fari [Hafari] fiqh of the Imami
Shias is in most cases indistinguishable
from one or more of the four Sunni
madhahib, except that "Muta'h"
or temporary marriage is considered
lawful by the Fiqh Jafari, whereas
it is prohibited in all the Sunni
schools. But the Shia are still viewed
with great caution by the Ulema of
the Sunni world. Although Sunni and
Shi'a Muslims are historically ambivalent,
this traditional enmity was dampened
in Central Asia due to shared resistance
to Russian and Soviet rule. Indeed,
both Sunni and Shi'a delegations to
the 1905 Third Congress of Muslims
in Russia declared Ja'farite Shi'ism
as a fifth legal school, equivalent
to the Hanafi, Maliki, Hanbali, and
Shafi'i madrasehs.
Shi’as do not believe in predestination.
They accept the teachings of the Mu’tazilities,
a group of Sunni scholars who were
later declared heretical. The Mu’tazilities
believed that God cannot be responsible
for evil, and therefore, humans must
have freewill and be independent of
God’s authority in this life. A further
belief of Shia Muslims concerns divine
justice and the individual's responsibility
for his acts, which are judged by
a just God. This contrasts with the
Sunni view that God's creation of
man allows minimal possibility for
the exercise of free will.
Two distinctive and frequently misunderstood
Shia practices are mutah, temporary
marriage, and taqiyah, religious dissimulation.
Mutah, that is, marriage with a fixed
termination contract subject to renewal,
was practiced by Muslims as early
as the formation of the first Muslim
community at Medina. Banned by the
second caliph, it has since been unacceptable
to Sunnis, but Shias insist that if
it were against Islamic law it would
not have been practiced in early Islam.
Mutah differs from permanent marriage
because it does not require divorce
proceedings for termination because
the contractual parties have agreed
on its span, which can be as short
as an evening or as long as a lifetime.
By making the mutah, a couple places
the sexual act within the context
of sharia; the act then is not considered
adulterous and offspring are considered
legitimate heirs of the man.
Taqiyah is another practice condemned
by the Sunni as cowardly and irreligious
but encouraged by Shia Islam and also
practiced by Alawis and Ismailis.
A person resorts to taqiyah when he
either hides his religion or disavows
certain religious practices to escape
danger from opponents of his beliefs.
Taqiyah can also be practiced when
not to do so would bring danger to
the honor of the female members of
a household or when a man could be
made destitute as a result of his
beliefs. Because of the persecution
frequently experienced by Shia imams,
particularly during the period of
the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates,
taqiyah has been continually reinforced.
Shia practice differs from that of the
Sunnis concerning both divorce and
inheritance in that it is more favorable
to women. The reason for this reputedly
is the high esteem in which Fatima,
the wife of Ali and the daughter of
the Prophet, was held.
Among Shias the term imam traditionally
has been used only for Ali and his
eleven descendants. None of the twelve
Imams, with the exception of Ali,
ever ruled an Islamic government.
During their lifetimes, their followers
hoped that they would assume the rulership
of the Islamic community, a rule that
was believed to have been wrongfully
usurped. Because the Sunni caliphs
were cognizant of this hope, the Imams
generally were persecuted during the
Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. Therefore,
the Imams tried to be as unobtrusive
as possible and to live as far as
was reasonable from the successive
capitals of the Islamic empire.
The Imamate began with Ali, who is also
accepted by Sunni Muslims as the fourth
of the "rightly guided caliphs"
to succeed the Prophet. Shias revere
Ali as the First Imam, and his descendants,
beginning with his sons Hasan and
Husayn, continue the line of the Imams
until the twelfth, who is believed
to have ascended into a supernatural
state to return to earth on Judgment
Day. Shias point to the close lifetime
association of the Prophet with Ali.
When Ali was six years old, he was
invited by the Prophet to live with
him, and Shias believe Ali was the
first person to make the declaration
of faith in Islam. Ali also slept
in the Prophet's bed on the night
of the hijra or migration from Mecca
to Medina when it was feared that
the house would be attacked by unbelievers
and the Prophet stabbed to death.
He fought in all the battles the Prophet
did except one, and the Prophet chose
him to be the husband of his favorite
daughter, Fatima.
The Sunni-Shia division of Islam originated
as a succession dispute shortly after
the death of the prophet Muhammad
in 632 A.D. Shia believe that the
proper successor of Muhammad was Ali.
The word “Shia” means partisan or
faction of Ali. Ali was elected to
be the fourth Muslim ruler or caliph,
but was later overthrown and assassinated.
Shia Muslims believe that the first
three caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman
were usurpers, and that Ali was the
first true Imam.
Shia hold Ali in equally high regard
as Muhammad. Ali was buried in the
Iraqi city of Najaf, which established
an early connection between Iraq and
Shiism and became a shrine city that
continues to be a destination for
Shia pilgrims.
In 661 A.D. Mu’awiya, the governor of
Syria, named himself caliph and made
the caliphate hereditary in his own
family, the Umayyads, who the Shia
rejected as usurpers of Ali and his
sons’ rights to the caliphate. In
the year AD 661, Imam Ali, Muhammad's
son-in-law and the fourth caliph of
Islam, was assassinated in southern
Iraq in a struggle over who would
rule the faithful. Ali was buried
in Najaf, and his tomb is housed in
a mosque in the city's center.
Nineteen years after Ali's death, his
two sons were killed in battle and
subsequently buried in nearby Karbala.
Their battlefield deaths made martyrdom
one of the most important tenets of
Shiism. Shia attempts to challenge
the Umayyad leaders resulted in the
death of Ali’s son and the third Shia
Imam, Husayn, at the Battle of Karbala
in 680. The city of Karbala has become
a Shia shrine city.
Husayn’s death is commemorated annually
in the Ashura ceremony, and is seen
as a symbol of the persecution and
oppression experienced by the Shia
community. Celebration of Ashura can
also be a form of Shia political dissent.
Male participants in the Ashura rituals
beat their chests and chant in an
action called lahtom. Some use swords
to lacerate their heads to symbolize
the beheading of Husayn, or use chains
to beat their backs to evoke the suffering
of Husayn.
Shia may place a piece of stone or clay,
known as a turba, from the shrine
of an Imam or other Shia figure on
the ground so that their forehead
touches the stone when they prostrate
themselves in prayer. The possession
of such a disc is a sign of Shia identity.
Jaafari [Jafari] Faith means the Religion
according to lmam Jaafar Sadiq (a.s.),
the Sixth Infallible Imam of the world
of Shiism. Ascription of the Shiite
Religion to Imam Jaafar ben Muhammad
A]-Sadiq (a.s.) was due to the fact
that this noble Imam lived longer
than all other Infallible Imams and,
thus, he has had more time and opportunity
for action. Because of the conditions
of his time, the role of imam Sadeq
(a.s.) in reviving true, genuine Islamic
teachings, formation of numerous education
centers and training of faithful men
was exceptional to the point that
the Shiite religion by ascription
to him has been named the "Jaafari
Faith". The infirmity and confusion
of the Caliphate due to the clashes
between the Abbasid, and the Omayyad
dynasties, in particular, afforded
wider opportunities to the Imam to
teach, instruct, discuss and train
the faithful and sincere forces and
to establish lbeologic Centers and
promulgate the Islamic truths.
During the eighth century the Caliph
Mamun, son and successor to Harun
ar Rashid, was favorably disposed
toward the descendants of Ali and
their followers. He invited the Eighth
Imam, Reza (A.D. 765-816), to come
from Medina (in the Arabian Peninsula)
to his court at Marv (Mary in the
present-day Soviet Union). While Reza
was residing at Marv, Mamun designated
him as his successor in an apparent
effort to avoid conflict among Muslims.
Reza's sister Fatima journeyed from
Medina to be with her brother, but
took ill and died at Qom, in present-day
Iran. A major shrine developed around
her tomb and over the centuries Qom
has become a major Shia pilgrimage
and theological center.
Mamun took Reza on his military campaign
to retake Baghdad from political rivals.
On this trip Reza died unexpectedly
in Khorasan. Reza was the only Imam
to reside or die in what in now Iran.
A major shrine, and eventually the
city of Mashhad, grew up around his
tomb, which has become the most important
pilgrimage center in Iran. Several
important theological schools are
located in Mashhad, associated with
the shrine to the Eighth Imam.
Reza's sudden death was a shock to his
followers, many of whom believed that
Mamun, out of jealousy for Reza's
increasing popularity, had the Imam
poisoned. Mamun's suspected treachery
against Imam Reza and his family tended
to reinforce a feeling already prevalent
among his followers that the Sunni
rulers were untrustworthy.
The Twelfth Imam is believed to have
been only five years old when the
Imamate descended upon him in A.D.874
at the death of his father. Because
his followers feared he might be assassinated,
the Twelfth Imam was hidden from public
view and was seen only by a few of
his closest deputies. Sunnis claim
that he never existed or that he died
while still a child. Shias believe
that the Twelfth Imam never died,
but disappeared from earth in about
A.D. 939. Since that time, the greater
occultation of the Twelfth Imam has
been in force and will last until
God commands the Twelfth Imam to manifest
himself on earth again as the Mahdi
or Messiah. Shias believe that during
the occultation of the Twelfth Imam,
he is spiritually present--some believe
that he is materially present as well--and
he is besought to reappear in various
invocations and prayers. His name
is mentioned in wedding invitations,
and his birthday is one of the most
jubilant of all Shia religious observances.
The Shia doctrine of the Imamate was
not fully elaborated until the tenth
century. Other dogmas were developed
still later. A characteristic of Shia
Islam is the continual exposition
and reinterpretation of doctrine.
Shia Muslims hold the fundamental beliefs
of other Muslims. But, in addition
to these tenets, the distinctive institution
of Shia Islam is the Imamate -- a
much more exalted position than the
Sunni imam, who is primarily a prayer
leader. In contrast to Sunni Muslims,
who view the caliph only as a temporal
leader and who lack a hereditary view
of Muslim leadership, Shia Muslims
believe the Prophet Muhammad designated
Ali to be his successor as Imam, exercising
both spiritual and temporal leadership.
Such an Imam must have knowledge,
both in a general and a religious
sense, and spiritual guidance or walayat,
the ability to interpret the inner
mysteries of the Quran and the sharia.
Only those who have walayat are free
from error and sin and have been chosen
by God through the Prophet. Each Imam
in turn designated his successor--through
twelve Imams--each holding the same
powers.
Implied in the Shia principle of the
imamah is that imams, are imbued with
a redemptive quality as a result of
their sufferings and martyrdoms. And,
although imams are not divine, they
are sinless and infallible in matters
of faith and morals, principle very
similar to the notion of papal infallibility
in the Roman Catholic Church. That
man needs an intermediary with God
is an Iranian idea that long predates
Islam, as is the idea of a savior
or messiah (Mahdi) who will come to
redeem man and cleanse the world.
To expect that the Mahdi, who is the
last (twelfth) Imam, really will one
is a religious virtue (intizar).
The Twelver Shi'i population in 1980
was estimated to be 72,750,000. There
are important Shi'i communities in
the following countries: Iran (34,000,000);
Pakistan (12,000,000); India (10,000,000);
Iraq 7,500,000; the former Soviet
Union (4,000,000); Turkey (1,500,000);
Afghanistan (1,300,000); Lebanon (1,000,000);
Kuwait (270,000); Saudi Arabia (250,000);
Bahrain (160,000); Syria (50,000).
There are also small Shi'i communities
in Europe, Africa, North and South
America, and Australia and New Zealand
(Momen 1985, 282).
Page last updated:
Friday, November 25, 2005 22:04:51 -0500 |
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